After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king (and now high king of the Persian Empire) Alexander the Great launched a campaign in what was then part of India (today’s Pakistan). The rationale for this campaign is usually said to be Alexander’s desire to conquer the entire known world, which the Greeks thought ended in India.
[edit] Background Main articles: Alexander the Great and Wars of Alexander the Great [edit] The Kambojas Main article: Alexander’s Conflict with the Kambojas [edit] Siege of Aornos Main article: Siege of Aornos In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians people fled to a high fortress called Aornos (the modern city of Swat, Pakistan). Alexander followed them close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort. The Siege of Aornos was Alexander’s last siege, “the climax to Alexander’s career as the greatest besieger in history” according to Alexander’s biographer Robin Lane Fox (Fox 1973 p343). The siege took place in the winter of 327–326 BC. It offered the last threat to Alexander’s supply line, which stretched, dangerously vulnerable, over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh, though Arrian credits Alexander’s heroic desire to outdo his kinsman Heracles, who allegedly had proved unable to take the place Pir-Sar, which the Greeks called Aornis. The site lies north of Attock in Punjab, on a strongly reinforced mountain spur above the narrow gorges in a bend of the upper Indus. Neighboring tribesmen who surrendered to Alexander offered to lead him to the best point of access. At the vulnerable north side leading to the fort, Alexander and his catapults were stopped by a deep ravine. To bring the siege engines within reach, an earthwork mound was constructed to bridge the ravine. A low hill connected to the nearest tip of Pir-Sar was soon within reach and taken. Alexander’s troops were at first repelled by boulders rolled down from above. Three days of drumbeats marked the defenders’ celebration of the initial repulse, followed by a surprise retreat. Alexander hauled himself up the last rockface on a rope. Alexander cleared the summit, slaying some fugitives (Fox) —inflated by Arrian to a massacre—and erected altars to Athena Nike, Athena of Victory, traces of which were identified by Stein (Fox 1973, Arrian). Sisikottos, or Sashigupta who had helped Alexander in this campaign, was made the governor of Aornos. According to H. C. Seth and Ranajit Pal, he was the same as Chandragupta Maurya. [edit] PunjabAfter reducing Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus to begin campaigning in the Punjab. [edit] Battle of the Hydaspes River The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander in May 326 BCE against the Indian king Porus at Kshatriya on the Hydaspes River in the Punjab region of ancient India, near Bhera now in Pakistan. The Hydaspes was the last major battle fought by Alexander.[7] The main train went into modern day Pakistan through the Khyber Pass, but a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander went through the northern route, resulting in the Siege of Aornos along the way. In early spring of the next year, he combined his forces and allied with Taxiles (also Ambhi), the King of Taxila, against his neighbor, the King of Hydaspes. Porus drew up on the south bank of the Jhelum River, and was set to repel any crossings. The Jhelum River was deep and fast enough that any opposed crossing would probably doom the entire attacking force. Alexander knew that a direct crossing would fail, so he found a suitable crossing, about 27 km (17 miles) upstream of his camp. Alexander left his general Craterus behind with most of the army while he crossed the river upstream with a strong part of his army. Porus sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son to the crossing. The force was easily routed, and Porus’ son was killed. Porus now saw that the crossing force was larger, and decided to face it with the bulk of his army. The Indians were poised with cavalry on both flanks, the war elephants in front, and infantry behind the elephants. These war elephants presented an especially difficult situation for Alexander, as they scared the Macedonian horses. Alexander started the battle by sending horse archers to shower the Indian left cavalry wing, and then used his cavalry to destroy the Indian cavalry. Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanxes had advanced to engage the charge of the war elephants. The Macedonians eventually surrounded the Indian force, which amounted to a mass surrender. Porus was one of many Indians who impressed Alexander. Wounded in his shoulder, standing over 2 m (7 feet) tall, but still on his feet, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. “Treat me, O Alexander, like a king” Porus responded.[8] The bravery and war skills of Porus impressed Alexander. Alexander spared the life of Porus, although he had been defeated, and let him rule Hydaspes in Alexander’s name. Afterwards, Alexander founded Alexandria Nikaia (Victory), located at the battle site, to commemorate his triumph. He also founded Alexandria Bucephalus on the opposite bank of the river. Alexander did this in memory of his much cherished horse, Bucephalus, who died during this battle, reportedly due to old age. After the battle, Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle, and therefore made an alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom, even adding some land he did not own before. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of the horse who had brought him to India, who had died during the Battle of Hydaspes.[9] Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the Indus River. [edit] Revolt of the army East of Porus’s kingdom, near the Ganges River (hellenic version of the Indian name Ganga), was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march further east.
Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere 1,000 km (600 miles away), at the edge of India. He was unaware of China, Malaysia, as well as the other lands east of India. He therefore spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return, the men, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland”. Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men agreed and turned south. [edit] Campaign against the MalliAlong the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern day Multan). During a siege, Alexander jumped into the fortified city alone with only two of his bodyguards and was wounded seriously by a Mallian arrow.[12] His forces, believing their king dead, took the citadel and unleashed their fury on the Malli who had taken refuge within it, perpetrating a massacre, sparing no man, woman or child.[13] However, due to the efforts of his surgeon, Kritodemos of Kos, Alexander survived the injury.[14] Following this, the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander’s forces, and his beleaguered army moved on, conquering more Indian tribes along the way. [edit] AftermathAlexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern Iran and Makran now part of Pakistan). In the territory of the Indus, Alexander nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles. Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek satraps. [edit] References
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Alexander’s Indian campaign
August 25, 2010
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